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Objectives
~ Review parts of the brain
~ Get a general understanding of the most important hormones and neurotransmitters
Serotonin
~ Serotonin is a neurotransmitter with seven families (5-HT1â5-HT7) and approximately 15 receptor subtypes.
~ Mood
~ Energy and glutamate release
~ Respiration
~ Blood pressure
~ Appetite
~ Pain perception
~ Bone density
~ Memory
~ Learning and cognition
~ Motivation and dopamine release
~ Acetylcholine, dopamine and norepinephrine release in the frontal cortex
~ GI motility
Serotonin
~ Serotonin is among the many neurotransmitters that participate in the regulation of cortisol, prolactin and growth hormone secretion
~ Low dopamine low prolactin
~ Prolactin regulates behavior, the immune system, metabolism, reproductive systems
~ Prolactin decreases estrogen and testosterone
~ Prolactin is high during times of stress
Norepinephrine
~ Produced from Phenylalanine–Tyrosine–L-dopa–Dopamine–Epinephrine–Norepinephrine
~ Regulates
~ Circadian rhythms
~ Attention and focus
~ Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
~ Regulates release of glucose and fatty acids into the blood
~ Mood (too much can cause panic)
~ Modulates immune response. Suppress neuroinflammation when released in the brain.
~ Up to 70% of norepinephrine projecting cells are lost in Alzheimerâs Disease
Acetylcholine
~ Muscle control
~ Arousal
~ Attention
~ Memory
~ Motivation
Glutamate
~ Main excitatory neurotransmitter but can excite cells to their death âexcitotoxicityâ
~ Testosterone was shown to significantly increase the toxicity of glutamate concentration, whereas estradiol significantly attenuated the toxicity
GABA
~ GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in adults
~ Created from glutamate
~ GABA is considered the major excitatory neurotransmitter in many regions of the brain before the brain matures
~ Assists in neurogeneration
~ Assists in reducing anxiety and fear
~ Produced at relatively high levels in the insulin-producing β-cells of the pancreas
~ Suppresses inflammation
~ Regulates muscle contraction
Endorphins
~ Fear and emotional learning are modulated by endogenous opioids
~ Endogenously released opioids directly regulate neuronal excitability
~ Modulate HPA-Axis responses Chronic stress causes changes in specific components of the endogenous opioid system, including Îź-opioid receptors.
~ Immune cells have been shown to secrete endogenous opioid peptides, which then bind to peripheral opioid receptors to relieve inflammatory and neuropathic pain
~ Chronic overeating resulting in opioid release could cause opioid resistance and promote overeating and obesity to regulate homeostasis
~ Feeding consistently triggers cerebral opioid release even in the absence of subjective pleasure
Dopamine
~ Motivation
~ Executive function
~ Mood
~ Movement (erectile dysfunction, restless legs, Parkinsonâs disease)
~ Energy and Wakefulness (people with Parkinsonâs or on antipsychotics are often sleepy)
~ Learning, attention & memory (prefrontal cortex)
~ Regulates insulin
~ Immune system
~ Reduces gastrointestinal motility and protects intestinal mucosa
~ Regulates the flow of information from other areas of the brain (problem solving) (Frontal lobe and thalamus)
~ L-Tyrosine produces dopamine, adrenaline, thyroid hormones
Endocannabinoids
~ Endocannabinoids maintain emotional, physiological and cognitive stability
⢠Appetite, digestion, metabolism
⢠Chronic pain inflammation and other immune system responses
⢠Mood and stress response
⢠Learning and memory
⢠Motor control
⢠Sleep
⢠Cardiovascular and reproductive system function
⢠Bone remodeling and growth
⢠Skin and nerve function
~ CB1 receptors are mostly found in the brain and GABA, glutamate, dopamine and serotonin.
~ CB2 receptors are mostly found within the immune system
Summary
~ Neurotransmitters and hormones exist in a very delicate balance.
~ Changing one often results in a cascade of other changes
~ Mood and cognitive symptoms may be caused by problems with a variety of different neurotransmitters or hormones
~ Aging naturally reduces certain hormones and consequently neurotransmitters
~ Differential diagnoses requires exploring the possibility of a deficit in a neurotransmitter or hormone due to
~ Insufficient raw materials to make it
~ Deficiency in other chemicals that trigger its release
~ Excess of chemicals that degrade it or trigger reuptake
~ Problems in neuronal signaling within the system.
~ The human body is extremely complex
~ Symptoms of mood and cognitive disorders can be caused by a variety of problems in physiological systems
~ Cognitions and emotions can trigger the HPA-Axis and alter the functioning of internal systems and set off a cascade.
~ Effective treatment of mood and cognitive disorders requires addressing all physiological as well as psychological issues contributing to neurochemical imbalance.